Avståndsbaserade vägavgiftssystem införs successivt i många länder världen över. Effekten av ett systems implementering kan i många delar vara svårt att analysera, inte minst ur ett mer övergri-pande perspektiv. Denna rapport är en studierörande en helt ny typ av satellitbaserad,yttäckande mätteknik som har genomförts inom ARENA, den svenska kunskapsplattformen för brukaravgifter i transportsektorn. Den yttäckande trafikmätningen sker med avancerad radarteknik som blivit tillgänglig under de sen-aste åren och där vi idag befinner oss i ett stort skifte på så sätt att tillgängligheten av data kommer att öka betydande de närmsta åren. Rapporten innehåller resultat från ett fältförsök över södra Sverige där det tyska satellitsystemet TerraSAR-X användes. Syftet är också att få en uppfattning över hur metodiken, som krävs vid en fullskalig satellitmätning, ser ut. Det vill säga hur man skall välja ut mätområdet, beställning av mät-ning över mätområdet, nedladdning av satellitdatauttag samt en verifiering av hur mätningarna på olika sätt kan bidra till före-och efteranalyser vid ett eventuellt införande av ett vägavgiftssystem.Rapporten har ett övergripande mål att knyta an till de inom ARENAidentifierade domäner, faktorer och nyckeltal som i sin tur ansetts vara relevanta för att utvärdera effekterna av ett införande av en vägslitageskatt för tung trafik. Rapportens huvudsakliga fokus är vad som möjligt att mäta från satel-litbaserade system men även i någon mening översiktligt uppskatta förmågan hos andra yttäckande system såsom drönare och flygburna system. Det vill säga vad systemen kan förväntas leverera uti-från en analys kring tillgänglighet, kvalitet, kostnad och användbarhet.

One important application of Synthetic Aperture Radars (SAR) is positioning of targets with high accuracy in both azimuth and range. If the target is moving and a multi-channel SAR system is used also the speed components in azimuth and range can be found with a high accuracy. In this paper we propose a method to estimate the accuracy of such a multichannel SAR system. The method is based on the Cramér-Rao Lower Bound (CRLB). To exemplify the method the variance of parameter estimates by a single channel UHF UWB SAR system is found.

The thesis summarizes a selection of my research within Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR). Mainly the research is aimed at applying and developing signal processing methods to single channel and multi channel SAR for wideband systems. SAR systems can generate images looking very similar to optical pictures, i.e. photos, and sometimes with much finer resolution compared to optical systems orbiting Earth. SAR has also for instance been used to obtain fine resolution images of the moon, Venus and the satellites of Saturn. Other applications for SAR has is to detect changes in ice sheets and deforestation. In this thesis, SAR systems capable of very high resolution imaging are con- sidered, and data from such systems, namely the VHF system CARABAS-II and the UHF system LORA, is used. High resolution imaging in this thesis refers to high resolution with regard to wavelength, this independent of system operating frequency. Two of the topics in this thesis are related to detection and parameter estimation of moving objects in SAR, the first one using CARABAS-II data and the second with LORA data. On the CARABAS-II data, a speed estimation and refocusing method is introduced and applied to single channel CARABAS-II data. The results show good estimation accuracy as well as good ability to focus the object and suppress forest clutter by ap- plying the refocusing algorithm. The results on LORA data are satisfactory especially with regard to forest clutter suppression. The ability to detect and focus images of ships allow for surveillance of coastal areas and help in rescue of ships lost at sea. Detection and location of cars and trucks allow for traffic monitoring to obtain statistics of how many cars travel the roads and their speed. In the thesis, two more important aspects for SAR processing is presented. One paper presents windowing of UWB SAR images. A strong object such as a power line in a SAR image cause ringing on both sides of the power line. This ringing can cause a small house to be covered by these so called side lobes. Applying a window can make these side lobes in the image much suppressed, however if windowing too much, the power line will smear over the image, covering the small house. The last topic in the thesis concern with theoretical limits for measurement accuracy of parameters for a moving object in a SAR image. These parameters are position, velocity, radar cross section and phase. The theoretical expressions are verified using simulations for a single channel system for estimation accuracy of target speed and relative speed.

In this paper, results of moving target detection in multichannel UHF-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data are shown. The clutter suppression is done using Finite Impulse Response (FIR) filtering of multichannel SAR in combination with a 2-stage Fast Backprojection (FBP) algorithm to focus the moving target using relative speed. The FIR filter coefficients are chosen with the use of STAP filtering. Two parameters are used for target focusing, target speed in range and in azimuth. When the target is focused, both speed parameters of the target are found. In the experimental results, two channels were used in order to suppress clutter. In the resulting SAR images it is obvious that very strong scatterers and the forest areas have been suppressed in comparison to the moving target in the image scene. The gain obtained can be measured using SCNR gain, which is about 19dB. Another way to measure signal processing gain is the ability to suppress the strongest reflecting object in the SAR scene. The gain of target in relation to this object is 25dB. This shows that using UHF-band SAR GMTI for suppressing forest and increasing the target signal can work.

In this paper, a method for moving target relative speed estimation and refocusing based on synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images is derived and tested in simulation and on real data with good results. Furthermore, an approach on how to combine the estimation method with the refocusing method is introduced. The estimation is based on a chirp estimator that operates in the SAR image and the refocusing of the moving target is performed locally using subimages. Focusing of the moving target is achieved in the frequency domain by phase compensation, and therefore makes it even possible to handle large range cell migration in the SAR subimages. The proposed approach is tested in a simulation and also on real ultrawideband (UWB) SAR data with very good results. The estimation method works especially well in connection with low frequency (LF) UWB SAR, where the clutter is well focused and the phase of the smeared moving target signal becomes less distorted. The main limitation of the approach is target accelerations where the distortion increases with the integration time.

The paper introduces a simple experimental groundbased SAR system for studying SAR fundamentals. The SAR system is developed on a vector network analyzer (VNA), for example Agilent E5071C, with some useful built-in functions such as transform and gating. The procedure of acquiring the data by using the SAR system is presented in details. The acquired empirical data is also used to reconstruct the illuminated scene. The possibilities to use the SAR system to support SAR research topics are also discussed in this paper.

The paper presents another possibility to focus moving targets using normalized relative speed (NRS). Similar to the currently used focusing approach, the focusing approach proposed in this paper aims at the ultrawideband and ultrawidebeam synthetic aperture radar systems (UWB SAR) like CARABAS-II. The proposal is shown to overcome the shortcomings of the original focusing approach and can be extended to more complicated cases, for example bistatic SAR.

The paper presents a study of the capability of time- And frequency-domain algorithms for bistatic SAR processing. Two typical algorithms, Bistatic Fast Backprojection (BiFBP) and Bistatic Range Doppler (BiRDA), which are both available for general bistatic geometry, are selected as the examples of time- And frequency-domain algorithms in this study. Their capability is evaluated based on some criteria such as processing time required by the algorithms to reconstruct SAR images from bistatic SAR data and the quality assessments of those SAR images.

A 2-D spectrum for bistatic synthetic aperture radar is derived in this letter. The derivation is based on the commonly used mathematic principles such as themethod of stationary phase and the Fourier transform and the Lagrange inversion theorem in order to find the point of stationary phase in the method of stationary phase. Using the Lagrange inversion theorem allows minimizing the initial assumptions or the initial approximations. The derived 2-D spectrum is compared with the commonly used 2-D spectrum to verify it and illustrate its accuracy.

SAR systems synthesizing circular apertures have been shown to result in better spatial resolutions than the ones synthesizing linear apertures. The paper presents an investigation about the enhancement of SAR spatial resolutions with the use of circular aperture. A comparison between the spatial resolutions obtained with a SAR system synthesizing a circular aperture and with the same SAR system synthesizing a linear aperture is therefore carried out. The studying results are verified by the experimental SAR data set provided by the experimental ground-based SAR system of Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH GB-SAR).

Stand-alone synthetic aperture radar (SAR) ground moving target indication (GNITI) methods have both advantages and disadvantages. This paper introduces a hybrid SAR GMTI method that is based on two well-known methods: space time adaptive processing (STAP) and moving target detection by focusing (MTDF). The input of the proposed hybrid method is two time separated complex radar images. The output is detected ground moving targets, the target normalized relative speeds (NRS), and focused images of the detected targets. In the paper, we provide the mathematical background behind the hybrid SAR GMTI method in details. We also provide some experimental results for validating the proposed method. The data for the experiments was acquired in early 2015 by TanDEMX and TerraSAR-X operating in monostatic pursuit mode. The ground scene where the measurements were conducted is around Mantorp, west of Linkoping, Sweden.

Stand-alone synthetic aperture radar (SAR) ground moving target indication (GMTI) methods have both advantages and disadvantages. This paper introduces a hybrid SAR GMTI method that is based on two well-known methods: space time adaptive processing (STAP) and moving target detection by focusing (MTDF). The input of the proposed hybrid method is two time separated complex radar images. The output is detected ground moving targets, the target normalized relative speeds (NRS), and focused images of the detected targets. In the paper, we provide the mathematical background behind the hybrid SAR GMTI method in details. We also provide some experimental results for validating the proposed method. The data for the experiments was acquired in early 2015 by TanDEM-X and TerraSAR-X operating in monostatic pursuit mode. The ground scene where the measurements were conducted is around Mantorp, west of Linköping, Sweden. © 2018 IEEE.

In this paper, Impulse Response Function in Circular Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging (IRF-CSAR), which is a special version of Impulse Response Function in Ultrawideband-Ultrawidebeam Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging (IRF-USAR), is presented and shown to be valid for representing the CSAR image of a point-like scatterer. IRF-CSAR can therefore be used in studying different CSAR systems such as predicting the pattern of a point-like scatterer illuminated by a CSAR system, estimating resolution achieved by that system. Applying IRF-CSAR to define the image quality assessments for CSAR is also presented in the paper.

Two fast time-domain algorithms are introduced for ultrawideband-ultrawidebeam (UWB) bistatic synthetic aperture radar (SAR) processing; they are bistatic fast backprojection (BiFBP) and bistatic fast factorized backprojection (BiFFBP). Both algorithms process radar echoes on a subaperture and subimage basis in order to minimize processing time. They are shown to work with any configuration of bistatic SAR. They also own time-domain characteristics, which are essential for UWB radar signal processing. BiFBP and BiFFBP are experimented successfully on the CARABAS-II simulated data.

The paper proposes a groundmoving target detection and estimation method aiming at UltraWide Band and -Beam (UWB) Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) systems. The method is developed on the moving target detection by focusing technique and requires a SAR system flying with two different linear flight tracks. The method allows us to detect ground moving target, even hidden by clutter, and to estimate the target parameters such as speed and direction of motion. The accuracy of the estimations depends strongly on the computational cost and can therefore be controlled.

Focusing moving targets with Normalized Relative Speed (NRS) for bistatic synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is discussed in this paper. The discussion concentrates on azimuth invariant bistatic geometry. The focusing approach for azimuth-invariant bistatic geometry is derived analytically. The validity of the proposed approach for other bistatic geometry like azimuth-variant is also investigated.

Ultra-wideband (UWB) SAR imaging suffers from a number of inherent problems in which the apodization has not been investigated appropriately. This paper presents a discussion on apodization techniques and possibilities to apply these techniques in UWB SAR imaging.

This paper discusses spatial resolutions for narrowband narrowbeam (NB) synthetic aperture radar (SAR) as well as for ultrawideband ultrawidebeam (UWB) SAR. The similarity and difference between the impulse response function in NB SAR imaging (IRF-NSAR) - sinc function - and the impulse response function in UWB SAR imaging (IRF-USAR) is investigated and the result of this investigation shows that in the intensity interval from −6 dB to 0 dB, the behavior of IRF-NSAR and IRF-USAR in azimuth and range are similar. This is the basis for a derivation of new spatial resolution equations for UWB SAR based on −3 dB width or half power beamwidth (HPBW). The investigated result also shows that there exists the so-called HPBW narrowing/broadening factor in an IRF-USAR.

In synthetic aperture radar (SAR) processing, there is a trade-off between accuracy and speed. The approximations in an algorithm help to increase the algorithm’s speed but cause deterministic phase errors which directly affect the SAR image quality. This paper discusses the phase error calculations for bistatic fast backprojection (BiFBP) and bistatic fast factorized backprojection (BiFFBP) which are essential for setting their parameters. The phase error calculation principle for bistatic SAR in comparison to monostatic SAR is presented. This principle is used to derive the maximum phase error equation.

The paper discusses the possibilities to reconstruct an illuminated Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) scene in a ground plane instead of a slant-range plane using Fast Backprojection (FBP) algorithm. Hence, two methods to reconstruct a SAR scene in a ground plane are introduced in this paper. The methods are then considered to be extended for bistatic cases where the formation of a SAR scene in a ground plane is highly recommended. The proposals are examined with simulated SAR data and the simulation results indicate that rebuilding a SAR scene in a ground plane using FBP is possible.

This paper reports the measurement campaign Blekingetraffic that was performed by Blekinge Institute of Technology with collaboration with the partners. The measurements are part of a case study to evaluate the feasibility of spaceborne SAR for measuring traffic flow change before and after toll charge introduced in Sweden. The radar measurements were conducted around Pukavik, western of Karlshamn, Sweden in the end of 2015 and in the beginning of 2016. In this paper, the results of one of the controlled measurements performed in the first week of February 2016 is presented. In the ground scene, some trucks tracked with GPS were deployed in European route E22 and local roads. The trucks have either cabinets or food tankers resulting in different radar cross sections. The data acquisition is with TanDEM-X using two satellites giving up to 6 data channels. Since the measurements were performed at 5:00 pm there were unknown traffic i.e. trucks and cars that were not controlled. Therefore, the traffic on the roads was recorded by cameras next to the road and on a drone. The initial analysis of the measured data shows the possibilities to apply available processing techniques such as ground moving target indication and change detection to obtain the knowledge of traffic flow change. © 2017 IEEE.

The paper shows an investigation of the availability of the fast time-domain algorithms to process data collected by synthetic aperture radar systems with circular apertures (CSAR). In the investigation, the reconstruction of CSAR images from data is suggested to be in a ground plane instead of a slant-range plane. The Fast Backprojection (FBP) algorithms are considered to examine the availability of time-domain algorithms for CSAR data processing. However, the availability is also applied to the Fast Factorized Backprojection (FFBP) algorithms. The simulated CSAR data with respect to the CARABAS-II parameters is used.